Education: Theses and Dissertations
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Item Open Access The role of minority language-speaking families, community and the majority society in the intergenerational language transmission of the Korean language in New Zealand(2019) Kim JThis thesis investigates and explores intergenerational transmission of the Korean language in Korean migrant families and the Korean community in an English-speaking country, New Zealand. Through the bioecological human development theoretical lens (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1999, 2001) Korean migrant families’ language beliefs, practices and consequences are examined in three contexts: individuals and families, minority language-speaking communities, and the majority society, and the inter-relationships in each context are discussed.Item Open Access Student reflections on the transition from primary to intermediate school: exploring expectations, coping and Kiwi Can participation.(2025) Selwood, OliviaThe transition from primary to intermediate school represents a significant period of change and opportunity for early adolescents, who must adjust to an unfamiliar environment while also navigating a critical developmental milestone: the onset of puberty. Many students face social, academic, and emotional challenges that can impact their overall wellbeing. Despite its significance, research has predominantly focused on other school transitions, leaving a gap in understanding students’ lived experiences. Informed by the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping and Resilience Theory, this qualitative research explored students’ reflections on their transition, focusing on their expectations, adjustment, and coping. It also examined students' perspectives on the Graeme Dingle Foundation’s Kiwi Can program and its application to their primary-intermediate school transition. Ten year-seven students participated in semi-structured interviews, and students’ primary caregivers completed a questionnaire with similar open-response questions as the student interviews for a supplementary data source. The findings revealed that students primarily held negative expectations about intermediate school, often shaped by external sources. Social concerns were particularly salient; however, the extent of peer conflict and complex social dynamics was unexpected. Although academic difficulty increased, the changes were often overestimated. A positive aspect of the transition to intermediate school was the opportunity to participate in extracurricular activities and novel subjects, fostering self-expression. Students were proficient at identifying their coping strategies, particularly relying on peer support and self-directed emotional regulation. Some students attributed their application of resilience and social-emotional skills to Kiwi Can, while others did not consciously make direct links. Findings on expectations, lived experience, and coping aligned with literature on intermediate transitions, offering rich qualitative insights to inform practices and policies that promote a smooth transition.Item Open Access Planning practices and pedagogical reasoning for practicum mathematics teaching : experiences of primary pre-service teachers.(2024) Wilson, SusannaThis thesis presents the findings from an inquiry into the planning practices of primary pre-service teachers (PSTs) as they planned mathematics lessons during an initial teacher education (ITE) practicum experience. Planning mathematics lessons is important preparation for mathematics teaching, requiring teachers to draw on their knowledge of mathematics content and pedagogy. Additionally, planning requires teachers to think and make decisions about pedagogical strategies for their lessons. For PSTs, learning how to plan mathematics lessons can be challenging because PSTs are only beginning to develop mathematics content and pedagogical knowledge, and they have limited experiences of thinking and decision making for teaching. Given the importance of knowing how to plan mathematics lessons, it is important that ITE mathematics educators, and others who support PSTs, understand how they do this work. Currently, there is some literature about how PSTs plan during ITE course experiences, but there are few studies about how PSTs plan mathematics lessons during practicum. A purpose of this study was to add to this literature by inquiring into the planning practices, thinking, and decision-making processes of final-year PSTs during their final practicum. An interpretivist paradigm and multiple case study methodology were chosen for this study. Four cases were selected, where each case was a primary PST in their final year of a 3-year degree who had to plan mathematics lessons during a final 5-week practicum. The main data gathering method was a think-aloud protocol, which involved the PSTs verbalising and audio recording their thinking while they planned mathematics lessons during practicum. The other data collection methods included the lesson plans the PSTs created during the think-aloud episodes and semi-structured audio-recorded individual interviews, which were carried out after practicum. The data analysis process involved coding data transcripts and identifying themes from each case. A similar process was followed for the cross-case analysis of the four cases. The main finding was that the PSTs identified planning dilemmas that prompted them to initiate and carry out eight planning practices. These practices were: examining and clarifying mathematics concepts, finding and selecting resources and tasks, selecting and using representations as tools, designing assessments, creating and using written plans, evaluating planning decisions, and considering learners. As the PSTs carried out these practices, they engaged in a range of pedagogical reasoning processes, specifically, connecting the planning practices, remembering and visualising pedagogical strategies from past lessons, and mentally rehearsing pedagogical strategies for future teaching. The findings are presented in a conceptual model called “PSTs’ planning practices during practicum,” which illustrates how the planning dilemmas, practices, and pedagogical reasoning processes are connected. Implications for ITE mathematics educators, associate teachers, PSTs, and curriculum and resource designers are presented, along with suggestions for future research. This study has shed light on the issues PSTs face when planning on practicum, how they respond to these issues, and how they pedagogically reason when making decisions for mathematics lessons.Item Open Access The socio-material construction of visual arts spaces in an early childhood education centre in Aotearoa New Zealand.(2024) Wrightson, HelenThis thesis reports a sociomaterial analysis of spaces provided for visual arts participation by children in one early childhood education centre in Auckland, Aotearoa New Zealand. Drawing on literatures in visual arts education and early childhood curriculum, it brings background theories of sociomaterialism and spatiality to questions about how kaiako (teachers) provide for the visual arts in early childhood centres and how these provisions are shaped by human and non-human actants. Ethnographic observations were made in one Auckland kindergarten across a two-month period immediately prior to the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. A qualitative ethnographic methodology, operationalised through methods including observation, audio-recording, fieldnotes, and sketches, was used to collect the data for analysis. Initial analysis was deductive, drawing on sociomaterial and spatial concepts, followed by inductive analysis. The focal theory developed from the analysis demonstrates how relational-ontological sociomaterial concepts of agency, intra-action, agency, matter, and the human and non-human can provide a new way for early childhood kaiako (teachers) in Aotearoa New Zealand to think relationally about learning with and through visual arts curriculum. To these concepts are added spatial concepts of fluidity, unboundedness, and temporality intra-action, agency. The focal theory is then expanded upon by incorporating aesthetic concepts, including allure, glamour, and persuasion, to build a set of explanatory claims to support an argument for how the agency of materials should form a key part of visual arts provision in early childhood education. This two-part theorisation concludes by arguing, not for further research into visual arts participation in early childhood education, but for advancing the professional learning of teachers to raise their awareness about the potential of sociomaterial concepts for their work with tamariki (children) in the visual arts.Item Open Access Investigating Tier 2 early reading interventions.(2025) Macpherson, HarrietLearning to read is complex and for some learners they will encounter challenges. These learners will require systematic and explicit intervention. Drawing on theoretical models of reading, this mixed-methods research took place within a multiple case study design. All participants provided informed and voluntary consent. Interviews and observations were used to explore how teachers plan for and implement Tier 2 reading interventions. Student assessments were used to explore the relationship between the intervention and learner progress. This provided varied and rich data to explore and answer the research questions. This research study explored three different schools in the Canterbury region, their Year 1 reading intervention group, and the instruction personnel over six to eight weeks. Overall findings show differences in the design and planning of intervention lessons and a lack of explicit instruction during the implementation of the lessons. A varying range of explicit instructional strategies were identified in the observed lessons. Missing from the findings was an understanding of the explicit and systematic nature of Tier 2 intervention, systems in place for progress monitoring, and specific identification of cognitive skills. This highlights the need for teacher professional development and support in the application of literacy knowledge, based on theoretical models of reading development and research.Item Open Access Navigating care : family carers’ support needs in managing flexible funding.(2025) Nicholls, AnitaEnabling Good Lives – a government policy agenda to provide disabled people and their families control over their care – has transformed the provision of disability support in Aotearoa/New Zealand (A/NZ). Flexible Funding is an important component of this transformation because it provides disabled people, and their families greater choice and control of their disability supports. Underpinning Flexible Funding is the idea that it provides disabled people with a budget to purchase the support they require from a market that provides services. This gives managers of Flexible Funding responsibility to self-build a good life for themselves or the person they support. This research aims to examine the role played by family carers in Aotearoa New Zealand (A/NZ) who manage Flexible Funding on behalf of someone with a learning (intellectual) disability. The primary question this research aims to address is: What are the learning and support needs of A/NZ family carers managing Flexible Funding on behalf of an adult family-member with a learning (intellectual) disability? The study uses a multiple case study design, using data gathered from three family carers’ semi-structured interviews and documentary analysis of relevant websites and documents. Data was analysed using Reflective Thematic Analysis. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Framework was used to present and further analyse findings from a micro, meso, exo, and macro perspective. The research found that, to construct a good life for a family member with a learning disability, family carers required: disability services that offered high quality support; strong support networks; knowledge of the disabled person’s preferences; practice that aligned with Enabling Good Life principles; access to information, and advocacy skills. The implications of this study are that family carers need access to the resources, knowledge and training that facilitate their use of Flexible Funding. Carers access to these supports have been limited by government policy and disability organisations’ practice. There is a need to refocus Government policy and organisational practice to meet the needs of disabled people and their families, as envisioned by Enabling Good Lives.Item Open Access Early career teacher determinations : to lead or not to lead.(2025) Day, IsaacThis thesis investigates the issue of low levels of leadership engagement among early career teachers (ECTs) within New Zealand schools. Concerns about teachers seeing themselves as future school leaders are worldwide, and understanding the barriers and motivators influencing ECT leadership decisions is urgent for developing broader leadership engagement in schools. A qualitative case study employing interviews is used to explore the appeal of leadership for six ECTs. Three theories (sociocultural, self-determination, and reciprocal determinism) are used to recognise leadership and leadership learning as a social practice with others to highlight what informs individual decisions to lead or not. Findings suggest how conceptual understandings of leadership typically reinforce formal positions with status, necessitating a choice between teaching and leading. Teachers also tended to wait for others to recognise their leadership potential. When teachers recognise an alternative conception that views leadership in the flow of practice without a formal leader title, leadership for learning can motivate formal and informal leadership action. I propose a concept of leadership agency, where teachers use their agency in learning through opportunities supported in their schools to work with others. Leadership can emerge through collegial sharing of insights and questions of practice. This highlights the importance of two, rather than one leadership pathway: positional and nonpositional. Learning as a pathway to leadership has the potential to attract ECTs into leadership work.Item Open Access From paint brush to pixel : Instagram’s influence on informal design education in Sri Lanka(2024) Gunasekara, HimashaLiving in an era that is characterized by the rapid evolution of digital communication platforms, Instagram stands out as a prominent and influential social media application. It is used by tertiary-level design students hailing from diverse socio-economic backgrounds. This study explores the informal education of tertiary-level design students from Sri Lanka, with a particular focus on the influence of Instagram on their informal education. As Instagram has rich design-related content and communities, its relevance to the creative design field cannot be underestimated. This research employs a digital ethnographic approach (Murthy, 2008; Pink et al., 2016), online observations, and semi-structured interviews to understand how Instagram shapes design students’ informal learning space. The study examines the role and impact of Instagram in informal design education and discusses its impact using Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s (1999) Systems Model of Creativity. The study includes the unheard stories of students and other stakeholders (teachers, designers, and industry professionals) in the field of design education. After processing data via a tailor-made system, it was clear that Instagram plays a multifaceted role in the informal learning process of tertiary-level design students. It serves as a prominent source of inspiration; it enables exposure and creates ample opportunities for collaboration and feedback; it supports professional development; and it facilitates networking and self-promotion. The study concludes that Instagram has become an integral part of the Sri Lankan tertiary-level design education landscape as it offers both opportunities and challenges. This study contributes to the extant literature by enabling a deeper understanding of Instagram’s role in Sri Lanka’s higher education system. The study concludes by providing recommendations for the Sri Lankan university grant commission, educators, and students, arguing that all can effectively navigate and utilize this useful digital media space.Item Open Access Exploring motivation for secondary school writing.(2025) Pearce, Jeanne M.The evidenced decline in students’ writing achievement and motivation, particularly at the transition from primary to secondary school, may have significant implications for future communicative competence. Extant research into writing pedagogy and achievement motivation largely focuses on parsing theoretical definitions, examining construct and achievement relationships, or assessing the efficacy of writing interventions. However, research has not prioritised the lived experiences and personal voices of students and teachers or the intersection of such in school-based writing environments. For this reason, the current research asks two questions: What beliefs do Year Eight and Year Nine students in New Zealand have about themselves as writers and about the school-based writing environment? What do teachers view as enablers and barriers to students’ motivation and progress in writing? Using three studies, student perspectives are explored through a combination of focus groups and surveys, and teacher perspectives are explored using interviews. A triangulated analysis integrates learner-centred and teacher-centred perspectives to identify areas of congruence, complementarity, and divergence. The results show that explicit and autonomy-supportive instruction enable students’ motivation for writing, but that time constraints, lags in students’ writing and self-regulation skills, and inconsistencies in how writing is defined and valued, by both students and teachers, act as barriers to the provision of writing instruction and to students’ writing motivation. The results of this research inform future writing pedagogy by highlighting the need for agreement about the why, what, how, and who of writing instruction at the secondary school level to support the development of proficient and competent writers.Item Open Access Amplifying Pacific voices in a Christchurch (New Zealand) secondary school : a study guided by Tīvaevae & Talanoa.(2024) Houghton, JosephPacific voices are often drowned out in schools, as there are competing communities, issues, and value systems at play. The main objective of this research therefore was to engage with Pacific students, parents, and their teachers, to investigate several key issues. These include the perceptions and status of Pacific values within the school environment and significant relationships that exist between learners, parents & teachers. This, in turn, allows for talanoa regarding the educational aspirations of Pacific students and their families, and an analysis of the school's ability to foster a sense of belonging for its Pacific community. Additionally, this study aimed to explore areas for growth and development within the school and similar contexts. The research is organised around the tīvaevae research model, a Cook Islands focused Pacific Research Method. It also utilised a qualitative, Participatory Action Research (PAR) approach, seeking to collaborate with participants as co-researchers. Data collection consisted of individual interviews and focus groups, aligned with the talanoa research methodology. This approach ensured the inclusion of diverse Pacific perspectives, creating an inter-generational data set drawn from students, parents, community leaders, and teachers at the school. The findings of this research aim to encourage school leaders, teachers, and policymakers to engage in dialogue with their Pacific students, parents, local Pacific communities, and Pacific teachers, to improve outcomes for Pacific students. This may hold relevance for school leaders, teachers, and policy makers in other countries (i.e. Australia & USA) that are seeking to meet the educational aspirations of Pacific (diaspora) communities.Item Open Access Effectiveness of literacy interventions that integrate emotion support In children with dyslexia and/or underachieving in literacy.(2024) Stienert-Parker, Sabine AlexandraDeveloping emotion-regulation in children has the potential to enhance academic achievement. Connections exist between emotions and learning, in that certain emotional responses can support acquisition of skills, whereas others may hinder it. While past research has highlighted the relationship between emotions and academic achievement, there are gaps in our understanding of the connection. For example, there is more to learn about how we combine literacy learning with emotional strategies in typical, school-based practice. Further research may also determine whether those with relatively severe literacy difficulties (such as dyslexia) would benefit from emotion-regulation strategies being added to literacy interventions. Similarly, the effectiveness of a combined literacy intervention for those with literacy difficulties and emotion-regulation difficulties may be examined. The current research considers each of these areas. The primary focus of the current research was, therefore, to examine the effects of intervention strategies that focused on emotion-regulation in a range of low literacy achieving children. The research participants comprised children with a specific learning difficulty (dyslexia), as well as those presenting with emotional barriers to literacy learning. The working hypothesis for the present research was that emotions play a key role in learning. It proposed that a literacy intervention which included emotion-regulation support would enhance the attainment of dyslexic/literacy underachieving children significantly more than a solely literacy-focused intervention. Data collection focussed on children aged 7-11 with dyslexia and/or low literacy levels relative to expected achievement levels. In each of the three studies, an emotion-regulation intervention in combination with a literacy intervention was administered and assessed. The literacy intervention was a purpose-designed program based on premises and strategies considered to be effective in improving relevant literacy skills. The emotion-regulation intervention was designed to facilitate change in each child’s perception of learning, and to enhance selfconcept, learning engagement, and achievement through the development of a sense of agency and motivation by way of self-affirmation and goal setting. Study 1 served as a pilot study and was undertaken online. Participants were divided into two groups: both groups received the literacy intervention, but only one group received the emotion-regulation intervention. Study 2 involved 33 participants and followed the same format as Study 1, though in person. The participants group consisted of a combination of low literacy achieving children and those with a dyslexic diagnosis. Groups were undifferentiated. Study 3 also took place in person, although with differentiated groups of participants; those with a dyslexia diagnosis, and those who were underperforming in literacy due to emotional barriers (e.g. anxiety). Both groups received the literacy and emotion-regulation intervention. Assessments were conducted in literacy (WIAT-III A&NZ/UK) and self-concept (PASS) at three separate points: pre (prior to intervention), post 1 (up to 7 days after intervention) and post 2 (10-12 weeks after intervention). Overall findings from Study 1 and 2 indicated that participants who received the emotionregulation intervention showed greater short and long term gains in literacy performance and self-assessment. As these two studies did not differentiate between children who were low literacy achieving due to dyslexia and those who were low literacy achieving for other reasons, a further study (Study 3) differentiated between such participants. These findings showed that a combined intervention was effective for children with emotional learning barriers as well as for those with literacy-based learning barriers (dyslexia). The research provided evidence that a combined literacy and emotion-regulation intervention can be effective in increasing the attainment of low literacy achieving and dyslexic children. These findings are discussed in terms of the practical implications of the research as well as theoretical viewpoints on the connections between emotion and learning.Item Open Access Facilitating early writing success : assessment for teaching and learning.(2024) McIntyre, Anne C.Writing is an essential literacy skill and under-achievement can have life-long adverse consequences. Effective literacy teaching and intervention strategies early in a child’s education can improve educational outcomes (Berninger & Amtmann, 2003). Researchers have yet to reach consensus regarding how best to measure children’s early writing and what writing components should be assessed (Puranik et al., 2020; Quinn & Bingham, 2019); although there is agreement that writing can be conceptualised as having two essential components: ideation and transcription. Likewise, teachers require a range of valid and reliable assessment tools to inform teaching, monitor progress, and identify children in need of intervention (Allen et al., 2018; Coker & Ritchey, 2010; McMaster et al., 2020). Currently, there are few early writing assessment tools that evaluate both ideation and transcription, using both quantitative and qualitative measures. Few studies have investigated the utility and feasibility of assessment measures commonly used in empirical research within the context of classroom practice, especially with beginning writers. The four studies reported in this thesis examined the key components that facilitate early writing success and investigated a range of writing assessment measures to support teaching and learning within the classroom context. The first study, reported in Chapter 2, compared 76 six-year-old children’s ability to retell a story in both the oral and written modes. It examined the two essential components of writing: ideation and transcription. A comparative research design was used to evaluate concurrent measures of children’s oral and written narrative retell skills, and to explore relationships between children’s retell performance and other language and literacy skills. Specifically, oral narrative comprehension, phoneme awareness, spelling and reading were examined. Differences in the language and literacy skills of groups based on their performance in each retell task were also analysed. The results of paired sample t tests found that children produced significantly more words, a greater number of adverbs, and better-quality sentences in their oral retells. Hierarchical linear modelling indicated that 79% of the variance in written retell scores was explained by ideation (47%) and transcription measures (32%), and post hoc group comparisons revealed significant differences in the writing performance of children who had lower scores on transcription related measures (e.g., handwriting, nonword spelling). The second study, described in Chapter 3, addressed the need to provide classroom practitioners with valid and reliable quantitative and qualitative measures of early writing. Using a mixed-methods non-experimental research design, writing assessments were trialled by the researcher and 16 experienced classroom practitioners with 42 Year 1 and Year 2 children. Writing assessment data and practitioner feedback, via an online questionnaire and a semi-structured follow-up interview, were used to evaluate the effectiveness the assessment measures. Results from descriptive analyses indicated that nearly all measures were sufficiently sensitive to measure a range of writing ability. Analyses of repeated measures indicated that foundational skills (i.e., name writing, print concepts, and writing stages) and alphabet tasks (i.e., copying, from memory, allograph, and dictation) were able to demonstrate growth within one school term. All but one scoring measure demonstrated an acceptable level of reliability. Feedback from classroom practitioners indicated strong agreement regarding the utility of the assessment measures, providing evidence of social and ecological validity. Overall, the foundational skills and alphabet copying tasks were considered the most appropriate for emergent writers at school entry, and as progress monitoring measures across the first terms at school. The alphabet from memory, allograph, and dictation tasks, the sentence writing and dictation tasks, and the text writing tasks were most suited to children who had developed phoneme awareness and some letter-sound knowledge. The third study, reported in Chapter 4, further examined the effectiveness of the writing assessment measures utilised in Chapter 3 by evaluating the writing of 133 five- and six-year-old children over three school terms. This longitudinal comparison study measured children’s writing progress and achievement at the beginning of the school year and at two further time points, over a 28-week period of instruction. This study also evaluated the effectiveness of the assessments in monitoring progress across the key components of ideation and transcription, as well as classification accuracy in identifying children at risk for writing difficulties. Repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that children made significant progress across the three time points for name writing, alphabet copying and text writing. Group comparisons revealed that children’s gender, age, and oral language ability influenced growth rates and achievement. Results of hierarchical linear regression indicated that name writing and alphabet copying at Time 1 were significant predictors of text writing performance at Time 3. An evaluation of at-risk scores for each time point found that, together, the Time 1 name writing and alphabet copying tasks were the most accurate (83.7%) and that text writing tasks became more accurate screening and monitoring measures after the first term. The final study, reported in Chapter 5, further examined the effectiveness of the writing assessment measures, including selected measures trialled by classroom practitioners. Utilising a mixed-methods non-experimental case study research design, longitudinal assessment data for 35 Year 1 and Year 2 children and qualitative feedback from seven teachers was analysed. The at-risk classification accuracy of writing measures was compared with measures utilised as part of a structured literacy approach. The relationship between children’s Time 3 writing performance and more advanced measures of children’s transcription skills was also examined. The most accurate at-risk measures were letter-sound recognition, name writing, and the text rubric total for the New Entrant group, and initial phoneme identity, alphabet copying, and nonword spelling for the Year 1-2 group. Significant moderate to strong correlations were observed between children’s Time 3 writing performance and advanced transcription skill measures. Sentence dictation demonstrated the strongest relationship to text writing performance and was the most accurate at-risk measure for the Year 1-2 group. Evidence of social and ecological validity was gained from feedback from teachers, who reported finding the assessment tasks to be effective and appropriate for use in the classroom context and indicated that the sentence and text writing tasks would continue to be part of their literacy program. Comparisons of the writing progress of two children revealed that differences in writing progress and achievement were linked to spelling and key foundational literacy skills. The research reported in this thesis offers insights into the range of writing skills demonstrated by five- and six-year-old children during their first two years at school. The findings provide evidence of the key language and literacy skills underpinning the ideation and transcription components of writing that influence early writing achievement. Oral language skills were shown to make a unique and significant contribution to early writing. Evidence also highlights the pivotal role transcription skills play in the early stages of writing development. This thesis bridges the gap between research and practice by developing valid and reliable assessment tasks that support teaching and learning in the classroom context and that are valued by educational practitioners.Item Open Access Happiness and highlight reels: an exploration of the experiences of happiness and social media use in Aotearoa New Zealand young people(2024) Leggett, Victoria L.Adolescence is a critical stage of development marked by significant changes across all aspects of life. The phase is characterised by changes to social environments and how adolescents engage and interact with the world around them. These interactions influence key aspects of one’s sense of self and overall well-being. Seminal theories such as Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Crawford, 2020) guide how interactions between these environments—such as those immediate to the individual (the microsystem), and those in broader contexts (the macrosystem)—are associated with adolescent sense of self. Many factors within these systems such as educational contexts, familial contexts, and peer groups, along with wider societal expectations and cultural norms work to shape young people’s development in a variety of different ways. In this thesis, I argue that the interactions between the individual and their environment are associated with more than general developmental outcomes: they have a significant influence on young people’s experiences and perceptions of happiness. Understanding these elements of individual happiness have major implications for outcomes relating to positive youth development such as mental health, overall well-being, and education. More specifically, I contend that “happiness” is not simply an internal state but is constructed through interactions between different aspects of an individual’s environment. Factors such as cultural norms, media portrayals, and interpersonal relationships portray both implicit and explicit messages informing young people of what happiness should look and feel like. Therefore, an individual’s happiness is both an internal emotional state and a social construct that is entrenched within complex, dynamic social systems. Building on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory, I integrate two additional frameworks that are especially relevant to the study of youth happiness and the situated context of social media. First, I include the central tenets of social representations theory (Höijer, 2011). This theory explores how societal norms influence individual psychological constructs which, in turn, influence young people’s thoughts, attitudes, and opinions. In terms of happiness, young people’s observations, and processing of the world around them inform their personal understanding of these psychological constructs. This emphasises the impact of societal influences during the developmental period. Engaging with these influences, adolescents learn about societal values and expectations which have a marked impact on their sense of self and construction of emotional and social fulfilment. Second, my theoretical framework integrates social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). Over the past few decades, social media platforms have stamped their indelible mark on global society. These platforms change and develop quickly, introducing novel ways of sharing content and connecting with others. Social media has become a dominant environmental influence that further shapes adolescent happiness and sense of self. The nature of these platforms creates fertile environments for social comparison where people appraise their sense of happiness and self-esteem against their friends and peers (Festinger, 1954). Social media has created a space where young people can engage in continuous self-evaluation against content that is often designed to portray more desirable and idealistic forms of happiness. Engaging with this type of content can skew young people’s perceptions of happiness, especially if they expect their own happiness to mirror what is presented to them online. Importantly, young people use social media for a variety of reasons such as social connectedness, entertainment, dating, and educational purposes. This highlights both the diversity in experience across this population and the potential complexity of these experiences in terms of their impact on young people’s well-being. In this thesis, I argue that engagement on social platforms encourage social comparison behaviours. This can not only affect immediate experiences of happiness, but also long-term well-being. The potential for social comparison behaviours to foster feelings of inadequacy and failure in young people is a risk factor for mental health issues such as stress, anxiety, and depression. As such, the diverse uses of social media are analysed in this thesis to understand associations with adolescents’ experiences of happiness as informed by media influences (social representation theory) and how individuals evaluate themselves against the portrayals they see online (social comparison theory). These interactions occur within various environmental layers that significantly shape their development and perception of self, highlighting the profound influence of their virtual and immediate environments on well-being (bioecological systems theory). Exploring the associations between happiness and social media is crucial for young populations, especially in Aotearoa New Zealand where there are distinct concerns with the state of youth mental health. As social media has become a mainstay in many young people’s day-to-day lives, the potential for these issues to manifest and intensify continues to grow. Acknowledging and investigating the environmental factors that are associated with happiness, and by extension, positive mental health and well-being are essential when considering how to improve psychological development and mental health outcomes in young people. With these factors in mind, this thesis comprises two independent research studies that explore socialised perceptions of happiness and social media use in young people in Aotearoa New Zealand. The first study employed a critical realist approach to a qualitative study to explore what happiness is for young people, how they conceptualise it, its social influences, and its impacts on their thoughts of the future. The sample comprised 32 young people between the ages of 12 and 19 from across Aotearoa New Zealand who participated in an innovative, asynchronous interview protocol that was designed to investigate aspects of their experiences and conceptualisations of happiness. The use of reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the creation of three central themes. First, young people view happiness as a multi-dimensional concept. At its core, it is difficult to define, there are different ways to experience it, and it manifests across multiple domains of life both in the now and in the future. Second, happiness has a symbiotic and inextricable relationship with unhappiness. The concept is not raised without consideration of the other. Further, young people express that unhappiness is not entirely a negative experience and can in some cases enhance their experience of happiness. Third, happiness is a social phenomenon. Young people feel that their sense of happiness (or lack thereof) has a direct influence on the happiness or emotional states of those around them. This perception aligns with the concept of social contagion, where emotions and behaviours can spread through social networks. This phenomenon is particularly relevant in the context of adolescent egocentrism—a developmental phase where teenagers tend to be highly self-focused and often believe that others are as attentive to their thoughts and feelings as they are themselves. This egocentric view can amplify the effects of social contagion, as adolescents might overestimate the impact of their emotional states on others, leading to heightened sensitivity to how they are perceived within their peer groups. Thus, Study One demonstrates that young people look to others around them to understand what happiness is, and what they feel that their happiness should reflect through what they observe in other people, and that their sense of happiness affects others. The second study sought to incorporate social media use into understanding how young people experience happiness. Using a mixed-methods research design, this study was divided into two phases aimed at exploring the associations between youth social media use, social comparison behaviours, self-perceptions, self-esteem, and subjective happiness (according to validated instruments that best represent happiness). The first phase asked 112 young people aged 12 to 19 from across Aotearoa New Zealand to participate in a questionnaire to investigate their behaviours around social media use and their sense of happiness. Results indicate that young people who use social media for educational purposes and have higher self-esteem tend to report themselves as happier, whereas those who engage with social media to cope with their emotions report themselves as less happy. Phase two comprised both quantitative and qualitative elements and aimed to capture the day-to-day fluctuations of social media use and associated happiness. Forty-nine participants took part in a 14-day daily diary study. Results indicate that there are, indeed, fluctuations in how young people use social media on a day- today basis, and these may correspond to fluctuations in their level of happiness. Further, responses to open-ended questions reveal that young people are aware of, and share concerns, about their social media and social comparison habits. The overall findings of the thesis indicate that happiness for young people is complex, and this complexity must be adequately acknowledged in theory, research, practice, and policy. Social media use is a particularly powerful context for young people and needs to be recognised in the literature. On one hand, social media offers a platform for self-expression and social interaction, which can enhance feelings of connection and satisfaction. However, it also sets the stage for constant comparison and validation seeking, which can dictate a young person’s emotional well-being and mental health. The “curated” images and lifestyles presented online can lead young people to set unrealistic benchmarks for their own happiness, thereby impacting their perception of personal achievement and future contentment. In the second study, I provide new evidence that social media plays an important role in shaping the emotions and self-perceptions of young people, intertwining their sense of happiness with their behaviours on social media. Although no direct associations were found between happiness and social comparison behaviours, other results point to the underlying mechanisms behind how young people use social media, with suggestions for how this may affect their sense of happiness and well-being. In the general discussion, I advocate for the continued championing of youth voice in research and policy that directly impacts upon them. Young people should be viewed as their experts of their own experiences, and this expertise should be harnessed to make improvements that actively address issues that relate to them. In light of this, further research is required to extrapolate more detail pertaining to social media use and its associations with happiness conceptualisations and development in youth, especially in terms of the specific nature of content consumed. With a considered and nuanced approach, young people can be supported to understand their own sense of happiness and social media habits that encourages them to grow into healthy, well-adjusted, and hopefully, happy young adults.Item Open Access Girls and robotics: exploring the impact of educational robotics experiences on girls’ STEM identity(2024) Pears, JillThe research presented in this thesis examines the experiences of middle-school girls who belong to school-based robotics clubs and considers how these experiences may impact STEM identity. Females are underrepresented in many STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) fields, especially in fields such as engineering and computer science. The context of Educational Robotics was chosen for the thesis research because robotics is a STEM environment that combines engineering and computer science, and it is an area that has shown some promise in engaging students in STEM fields, especially fields such as Computer Science and Engineering. There are a variety of reasons that have been identified in research across the years for the underrepresentation of women in STEM fields such as engineering and computer science. As a consequence, initiatives have been developed to encourage increased participation of females in these fields. Many of these initiatives have focused on increasing girls’ knowledge, skills and access to STEM fields. Despite these actions, the underrepresentation of females in particular STEM fields is persistent. This has led researchers to consider how identity, and in particular a STEM identity, may impact the choices girls make. This thesis both builds on and contributes to this body of research. The research question that guided this work is: “In what ways does participation in a robotics club influence the development of girls’ STEM identity?” Identity relates to a sense of self. A person who has a STEM identity regards themselves as someone interested in and capable in STEM; that is, they see themselves as a STEM person. A mixed-methods design was used, specifically an explanatory sequential methodology, to explore girls’ experiences in robotics clubs and their STEM identities. Participants were girls in robotics clubs from throughout New Zealand. There were two main sources of data: a survey and interviews. Quantitative data were collected through the use of a survey instrument. The survey provided an overview of the girls’ experiences as members of robotics clubs and attitudes towards STEM. Qualitative data were primarily gathered through semi-structured focus-group interviews with girls from six clubs. The interviews provided a deeper understanding of the participants’ experiences than could be obtained through the survey alone. Findings indicate that belonging to a robotics club provided a context in which girls could engage with STEM and author for themselves a STEM identity. Clubs have the potential to support the development of positive STEM identities. However, the experiences of the participants in robotics clubs varied, depending on a variety of factors that include prior experience with STEM-related activities, the support that participants received in developing their STEM identity, and how robotics clubs were structured. The development of a STEM identity was negatively impacted by stereotypes and the absence of club structures and approaches supporting female inclusion. Sometimes initiatives to encourage girls can have the opposite effect to that intended. Four STEM identity archetypes were identified, the characteristics of which relate to the strength of a STEM identity and how the participants navigate their STEM identity alongside their gender identity. Recommendations for practice include the provision of STEM opportunities through robotics clubs, where robotics-related activities intentionally support the development of a STEM identity and social connections with peers interested in STEM. Related to this is the recommendation that teachers and tutors of robotics and educators involved in computing education outreach need to understand how STEM identities may develop and be supported in professional learning around identity. This is in order that they might create a robotics club culture that challenges sociocultural constructions and gender stereotypes around females in STEM and STEM fields such as engineering and computer science.Item Open Access How community Chinese heritage language (CHL) schools contribute to CHL maintenance in New Zealand : insights from CHL parents and teachers.(2024) Li, SiqiThe maintenance of Chinese heritage language (CHL) among children of Chinese immigrant families in New Zealand is a growing concern due to the impact of globalization and the pressures of language assimilation. This thesis explores the role of the community CHL school in Christchurch, New Zealand, in supporting CHL maintenance, focusing on the experiences and perspectives of CHL teachers and parents. A qualitative case study methodology was employed, utilizing semi-structured interviews with three CHL teachers and three parents in a community CHL school. Thematic analysis of the interview data revealed both strengths and challenges in CHL education within the community school context. Key findings highlight that strong cultural identity, integrative motivation, and supportive peer environments positively contribute to CHL maintaining. Parents and teachers expressed expectations that CHL learners (CHLLs) will develop both Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) in Chinese, alongside their English language development, to become additive bilinguals. However, challenges such as students’ lack of interest, rigid teaching methods, and limited resources hinder the effectiveness of CHL education. The study emphasizes the critical role of community CHL schools in fostering bilingualism and cultural preservation, while also suggesting improvements in teaching approaches and resource allocation. These findings are significant for community CHL school administrators and teachers. It is recommended that schools support teachers in receiving professional training to enhance their knowledge and understanding of CHLLs and CHL maintenance, and to improve CHL teaching. Additionally, community CHL schools should establish a CHLM outcomes feedback system to assess CHLLs' progress and provide feedback to parents. Furthermore, addressing the resource shortages in community CHL schools requires support from a broader range of societal groups and organizations.Item Open Access Metacognition and reading comprehension : the use of graphic organisers among EFL learners with different learning styles.(2024) Mousavi Nadoushani, Seyed MohammadComprehending the meaning of a written text is essential for studying a foreign language. This research explores the relationships between learners’ learning styles, self-reported metacognitive awareness and their use of graphic organisers in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), as well as how these factors relate to their reading comprehension abilities. A cohort of 151 Iranian university undergraduate students formed a convenience sample of research participants. The research instruments consisted of two English reading comprehension tests and three questionnaires. Firstly, participants were exposed to reading comprehension tests that included two passages with 20 open-ended questions about the texts. The participants were also required to fill in three questionnaires. The first questionnaire asked the participants about their learning styles, while the second posed questions related to the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI). The third questionnaire concerned graphic organisers, but before its administration, the participants were provided with material that explained graphic organisers and their utility in improving reading skills. The graphic organiser questionnaire was designed to both inform participants about these tools and assess their usage. Participants subsequently completed another set of 20-item reading comprehension tests. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses revealed a significant positive relationship between graphic organisers and the students’ English reading comprehension. Those who scored higher on the graphic organiser questions also showed better scores on both reading comprehension tests. The first test was completed before the researcher provided additional information about graphic organisers, and the second reading test was performed after receiving this information. Additionally, all learning style types exhibited correlations with reading comprehension skills. Despite the assumption that visual learners would excel in using graphic organisers, the regression analysis results indicated that the verbal learning style type explains the variability in the EFL learners’ reading comprehension. However, the finding indicated that metacognitive strategies correlated with reading comprehension and the graphic organiser measure. Amongst EFL learners, support strategies of MARSI were most related to English reading comprehension, followed by global and problem-solving strategies. Regression analyses further indicated that metacognitive reading strategies predicted the variability in the EFL learners’ reading comprehension and explained some of the variability associated with the graphic organiser measure. These results and the analyses of learning styles suggest that graphic organisers may be considered more of a metacognitive strategy than a specific learning style. These findings suggest further research to ascertain whether learners with different learning styles and equipped with metacognitive strategies can overcome some of the challenges associated with foreign language reading comprehension and whether using metacognitive tools such as graphic organisers may help.Item Open Access Chinese as a foreign language teachers’ content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and pedagogical beliefs about the teaching of Chinese characters.(2024) Yu, JinghanThe logographic nature of Chinese characters has brought many challenges for non-native-Mandarin learners, particular for those who are from alphabetic language backgrounds. Each Chinese character is a combination of sound, shape and meaning (Shen, 2005), arguing for Chinese Foreign Language (CFL) to approach individual characters through their phonological (sound), morphological (meaning), and orthographic (shape) aspects (Perfetti et al., 2005). Research has focused on exploring CFL learners’ perceptions and learning practices regarding Chinese characters (e.g., Lei & Wang, 2023; Shen, 2013; M. Yu & Chan, 2023), while other studies have discussed the cognitive learning process based on the theoretical and linguistic characteristics of Chinese characters, offering pedagogical suggestions (McBride, 2016; Shen, 2013). However, there remains a lack of information about how CFL teachers teach Chinese characters in classroom settings. To capture the voices of CFL teachers, this study involved three groups of CFL teachers who teach adult CFL learners in three distinct teaching contexts: online CFL teachers, university CFL teachers, and pre-service CFL teachers. This study examines CFL teachers’ knowledge, teaching practices, and perceptions regarding Chinese character teaching. Furthermore, it explores the differences among the three groups of CFL teachers and discusses the potential reasons for the discrepancies of pedagogical decisions and perceptions of Chinese character teaching. Guided by an integrated framework of three concepts of “content knowledge”, “pedagogical content knowledge” (PCK), and “pedagogical belief”, this study employs a mixed-methods approach to increase our understanding provide of the current state of Chinese character teaching in CFL education. A questionnaire was developed to explore 110 CFL teachers’ Chinese character knowledge and their PCK regarding Chinese character instruction. Semi-structured one-on-one interviews were conducted with 14 CFL teachers, including five online CFL teachers, four university CFL teachers, and five pre-service CFL teachers, providing further insight into CFL teachers’ perceptions and pedagogical decisions regarding Chinese character teaching. Results from the questionnaire suggest that most CFL teachers possess a good level of Chinese character knowledge. They are confident in their expertise, understand learners’ difficulties, and employ a range of teaching practices to support CFL learners. They place great emphasis on fundamental knowledge, using bottom-up skills to decode characters, while also utilising top-down skills to help learners recognise Chinese characters in meaningful contexts. Additionally, these teachers hold a strong belief in the role of handwriting in enhancing learners’ Chinese character proficiency. They also incorporated typing into their teaching practices. Analysis of the interview data shows some variations regarding specific pedagogical decisions. Online CFL teachers and pre-service CFL teachers interning in private language institutions employed student-centred approaches, focusing recognition over decoding, and generally excluding handwriting from their courses. In contrast, university CFL teachers and pre-service CFL teachers interning in universities followed teacher-centred approaches, emphasising recognising, decoding and handwriting with higher expectations for learners’ character proficiency. These differences are likely due to contextual factors, such as characteristics and expectations of learners, curriculum requirements, and teaching modes (i.e., online or offline). Research and pedagogical implications are discussed, including recommendations that should inform practice.Item Open Access Problematising NEET policy in New Zealand.(2024) Lawton, Lynda CatherineThis thesis argues that young people who are not in education, employment or training (NEET) are created as a political category and constructed for political purposes. It adopts a post-structural approach, aligning itself with Michel Foucault’s theoretical framework and utilising Carol Bacchi’s (2009) analytic strategy ‘What’s the problem represented to be?’. This thesis interrogates the thinking that the NEET category warrants government intervention. In addition, it examines the socio-historical, cultural, and political truisms that underpin the existence of the NEET category. Twelve New Zealand government documents, published between 2014 and 2018, were chosen for interrogation. The aim of this investigation was to understand how NEET young people are represented as certain types of problems, and to trace the political strategies deployed to ‘fix’ NEET young people. Firstly, I located the dominant discourses contained in the documents and secondly, I analysed how these discourses have come to be understood as commonly accepted truths. Finally, I explored the potential implications that these discourses may have for young people’s lives. Analysis of the documents revealed three dominant discourses: in all the documents NEET young people are represented as 1) a risky yet vulnerable group, 2) as experiencing problematic transitions from childhood to adulthood and/or from education to employment, and 3) being financial liabilities to the state. All three discourses position NEET young people as being ultimately responsible for their circumstances. In the chosen documents, NEET young people are often represented in conflicting yet, at times, similar ways. By interrogating dominant discourses within government documents this thesis opens up spaces for challenge and dissent. This document analysis exposes the potential effects that problematic representations may have on the lives of young people and encourages practitioners to challenge policies and practices that impact NEET young people in order to provide positive outcomes for them.Item Open Access Investigating the effectiveness of a morphology-infused literacy intervention on Year 5 and 6 students with literacy learning difficulties(2024) Ladbrook, SteveResearch has shown that there is a relationship between literacy and psychosocial outcomes. The aim of the current research was to determine the effects of a morphology-based literacy intervention on general literacy and writing skills, as well as to determine if the intervention would result in improvements in psychosocial development, including self-esteem, self-efficacy, and resilience. To achieve this, 13 students with learning difficulties, from Year 5 and 6, participated in an intensive literacy intervention that focused on morphology, phonology, vocabulary, and sentence construction. The results and analysis showed significant improvement in most literacy and writing measures, as well as positive and modest improvements in most psychosocial aspects, with greater improvements in ASE and social interaction. Pearson correlations revealed complex and varying links between literacy and psychosocial outcomes. The findings suggest that a morphology-based literacy intervention can have a positive impact on both literacy and psychosocial outcomes, and that students in Year 5 and 6 with literacy difficulties can benefit from such interventions.Item Open Access Exploring the teaching of writing through the self-regulated strategy development approach in years 5-8 classrooms.(2023) Gilmore, FionaWriting research has been relatively scarce and small in scale in NZ, and the most recent writing achievement data shows by the time students reach Year 8, achievement rates have dropped or at best remained static. Despite research identifying indicators of effective writing teaching practices, there appears to be growing uncertainty for teachers about their role in the teaching of writing at Years 5-8. This study explores the influence of the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) approach and specifically the use of REVISE strategy. Previous research has mostly focussed on using small numbers of students with learning difficulties and completed in controlled settings implemented by trained external facilitators. In contrast this study used purposive sampling to select eight teachers from four schools, who received Professional Learning Development (PLD) so they could implement SRSD/REVISE over a ten-week period. Schools were grouped into two Case Studies, forming the units of analysis. Case Study A consisted of three year 7/8 and one year 5/6 classes, while Case Study B were all Year 5/6. Using a mixed methods convergent research design, quantitative data was gathered to establish the influence on student writing achievement (overall writing effectiveness and number of revisions) using a writing task and a student attitudinal questionnaire. Student and teacher perspectives of the enactment of SRSD/REVISE were collected by using individual teacher interviews and student groups were used to obtain qualitative data. All data was collected concurrently at three time points throughout the course of the study and used to establish the influence of SRSD/REVISE immediately after enactment and maintenance (three months after). Quantitative analysis of the writing tasks used the t-test for non-independent (paired) groups as students were not randomly assigned. The student questionnaire was analysed using frequency of responses to identify patterns or trends. A thematic analysis approach was used to guide the qualitative data analysis. Joint display analysis was used to integrate all data and was grouped using the following headings: Knowledge of the Student Writer; Knowledge of the Writing Process; Knowledge of the Teaching of Writing and Influences of Enactment: Constraints and Enablers. Findings identified that enactment of SRSD/REVISE influenced writing achievement measures, although improved outcomes took longer to show for the older students. The use of the SRSD/REVISE approach enabled teachers to implement modelling using a variety of self-instructions while providing the mechanism to introduce and sustain peer conferencing and individualised goals. The REVISE writing strategy enabled students to actively revise their writing throughout the writing process. School based PLD facilitation throughout enactment supported teacher implementation of SRSD/REVISE. This allowed the facilitator to model, collaboratively plan, introduce writing strategies, and clarify implementation. Results from the teacher and student data indicate that teaching practices promoted student writing self-regulation behaviours, and enabled teachers to utilise effective writing approaches and instructional strategies.