Adolescence is a critical stage of development marked by significant changes across all aspects of life. The phase is characterised by changes to social environments and how adolescents engage and interact with the world around them. These interactions influence key aspects of one’s sense of self and overall well-being. Seminal theories such as Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Crawford, 2020) guide how interactions between these environments—such as those immediate to the individual (the microsystem), and those in broader contexts (the macrosystem)—are associated with adolescent sense of self. Many factors within these systems such as educational contexts, familial contexts, and peer groups, along with wider societal expectations and cultural norms work to shape young people’s development in a variety of different ways. In this thesis, I argue that the interactions between the individual and their environment are associated with more than general developmental outcomes: they have a significant influence on young people’s experiences and perceptions of happiness. Understanding these elements of individual happiness have major implications for outcomes relating to positive youth development such as mental health, overall well-being, and education. More specifically, I contend that “happiness” is not simply an internal state but is constructed through interactions between different aspects of an individual’s environment. Factors such as cultural norms, media portrayals, and interpersonal relationships portray both implicit and explicit messages informing young people of what happiness should look and feel like. Therefore, an individual’s happiness is both an internal emotional state and a social construct that is entrenched within complex, dynamic social systems.

Building on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory, I integrate two additional frameworks that are especially relevant to the study of youth happiness and the situated context of social media. First, I include the central tenets of social representations theory (Höijer, 2011). This theory explores how societal norms influence individual psychological constructs which, in turn, influence young people’s thoughts, attitudes, and opinions. In terms of happiness, young people’s observations, and processing of the world around them inform their personal understanding of these psychological constructs. This emphasises the impact of societal influences during the developmental period. Engaging with these influences, adolescents learn about societal values and expectations which have a marked impact on their sense of self and construction of emotional and social fulfilment. Second, my theoretical framework integrates social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). Over the past few decades, social media platforms have stamped their indelible mark on global society. These platforms change and develop quickly, introducing novel ways of sharing content and connecting with others. Social media has become a dominant environmental influence that further shapes adolescent happiness and sense of self. The nature of these platforms creates fertile environments for social comparison where people appraise their sense of happiness and self-esteem against their friends and peers (Festinger, 1954). Social media has created a space where young people can engage in continuous self-evaluation against content that is often designed to portray more desirable and idealistic forms of happiness. Engaging with this type of content can skew young people’s perceptions of happiness, especially if they expect their own happiness to mirror what is presented to them online.

Importantly, young people use social media for a variety of reasons such as social connectedness, entertainment, dating, and educational purposes. This highlights both the diversity in experience across this population and the potential complexity of these experiences in terms of their impact on young people’s well-being. In this thesis, I argue that engagement on social platforms encourage social comparison behaviours. This can not only affect immediate experiences of happiness, but also long-term well-being. The potential for social comparison behaviours to foster feelings of inadequacy and failure in young people is a risk factor for mental health issues such as stress, anxiety, and depression. As such, the diverse uses of social media are analysed in this thesis to understand associations with adolescents’ experiences of happiness as informed by media influences (social representation theory) and how individuals evaluate themselves against the portrayals they see online (social comparison theory). These interactions occur within various environmental layers that significantly shape their development and perception of self, highlighting the profound influence of their virtual and immediate environments on well-being (bioecological systems theory).

Exploring the associations between happiness and social media is crucial for young populations, especially in Aotearoa New Zealand where there are distinct concerns with the state of youth mental health. As social media has become a mainstay in many young people’s day-to-day lives, the potential for these issues to manifest and intensify continues to grow. Acknowledging and investigating the environmental factors that are associated with happiness, and by extension, positive mental health and well-being are essential when considering how to improve psychological development and mental health outcomes in young people. With these factors in mind, this thesis comprises two independent research studies that explore socialised perceptions of happiness and social media use in young people in Aotearoa New Zealand.

The first study employed a critical realist approach to a qualitative study to explore what happiness is for young people, how they conceptualise it, its social influences, and its impacts on their thoughts of the future. The sample comprised 32 young people between the ages of 12 and 19 from across Aotearoa New Zealand who participated in an innovative, asynchronous interview protocol that was designed to investigate aspects of their experiences and conceptualisations of happiness. The use of reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the creation of three central themes. First, young people view happiness as a multi-dimensional concept. At its core, it is difficult to define, there are different ways to experience it, and it manifests across multiple domains of life both in the now and in the future. Second, happiness has a symbiotic and inextricable relationship with unhappiness. The concept is not raised without consideration of the other. Further, young people express that unhappiness is not entirely a negative experience and can in some cases enhance their experience of happiness. Third, happiness is a social phenomenon. Young people feel that their sense of happiness (or lack thereof) has a direct influence on the happiness or emotional states of those around them. This perception aligns with the concept of social contagion, where emotions and behaviours can spread through social networks. This phenomenon is particularly relevant in the context of adolescent egocentrism—a developmental phase where teenagers tend to be highly self-focused and often believe that others are as attentive to their thoughts and feelings as they are themselves. This egocentric view can amplify the effects of social contagion, as adolescents might overestimate the impact of their emotional states on others, leading to heightened sensitivity to how they are perceived within their peer groups. Thus, Study One demonstrates that young people look to others around them to understand what happiness is, and what they feel that their happiness should reflect through what they observe in other people, and that their sense of happiness affects others.

The second study sought to incorporate social media use into understanding how young people experience happiness. Using a mixed-methods research design, this study was divided into two phases aimed at exploring the associations between youth social media use, social comparison behaviours, self-perceptions, self-esteem, and subjective happiness (according to validated instruments that best represent happiness). The first phase asked 112 young people aged 12 to 19 from across Aotearoa New Zealand to participate in a questionnaire to investigate their behaviours around social media use and their sense of happiness. Results indicate that young people who use social media for educational purposes and have higher self-esteem tend to report themselves as happier, whereas those who engage with social media to cope with their emotions report themselves as less happy. Phase two comprised both quantitative and qualitative elements and aimed to capture the day-to-day fluctuations of social media use and associated happiness. Forty-nine participants took part in a 14-day daily diary study. Results indicate that there are, indeed, fluctuations in how young people use social media on a day- today basis, and these may correspond to fluctuations in their level of happiness. Further, responses to open-ended questions reveal that young people are aware of, and share concerns, about their social media and social comparison habits.

The overall findings of the thesis indicate that happiness for young people is complex, and this complexity must be adequately acknowledged in theory, research, practice, and policy. Social media use is a particularly powerful context for young people and needs to be recognised in the literature. On one hand, social media offers a platform for self-expression and social interaction, which can enhance feelings of connection and satisfaction. However, it also sets the stage for constant comparison and validation seeking, which can dictate a young person’s emotional well-being and mental health. The “curated” images and lifestyles presented online can lead young people to set unrealistic benchmarks for their own happiness, thereby impacting their perception of personal achievement and future contentment. In the second study, I provide new evidence that social media plays an important role in shaping the emotions and self-perceptions of young people, intertwining their sense of happiness with their behaviours on social media. Although no direct associations were found between happiness and social comparison behaviours, other results point to the underlying mechanisms behind how young people use social media, with suggestions for how this may affect their sense of happiness and well-being.

In the general discussion, I advocate for the continued championing of youth voice in research and policy that directly impacts upon them. Young people should be viewed as their experts of their own experiences, and this expertise should be harnessed to make improvements that actively address issues that relate to them. In light of this, further research is required to extrapolate more detail pertaining to social media use and its associations with happiness conceptualisations and development in youth, especially in terms of the specific nature of content consumed. With a considered and nuanced approach, young people can be supported to understand their own sense of happiness and social media habits that encourages them to grow into healthy, well-adjusted, and hopefully, happy young adults.